Visit www.culinary-school-finder.com. Now everyone can easily find a chief who directed the school (pun intended) Culinary styles. This specific site is stacked like a multilayer cake.It 'very organized.You can search for a culinary school by categories such "Thai", "French", or "heat". It also has a map where you can see all the schools in several American culinary schools. You can browse also chef school at their site to get more details. I highly recommend that if you are looking for cooking school this site is for you.Monday, March 31, 2008
Culinary School Finder
Visit www.culinary-school-finder.com. Now everyone can easily find a chief who directed the school (pun intended) Culinary styles. This specific site is stacked like a multilayer cake.It 'very organized.You can search for a culinary school by categories such "Thai", "French", or "heat". It also has a map where you can see all the schools in several American culinary schools. You can browse also chef school at their site to get more details. I highly recommend that if you are looking for cooking school this site is for you.
Friday, March 28, 2008
The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
All over the world various species of animals, insects, and plants are being slowly wiped out. Some may argue that it is the natural order of things, but human involvement has certainly exasperated the issue, causing untold amounts of damage to the worlds ecosystems. All of the world, that is, except for the Arctic Circle and Alaska.
The Arctic is home to many different species of birds, bears, fish, and other animals. Much of the Arctic is still unspoiled, and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) intends to keep it that way. This organization and reserve sees the value in unspoiled landscapes and thriving wildlife.
The ANWR reserve spans over nineteen million acres, and within its boundaries there are over 500 different species of recognizable wildlife, and many more that have yet to be discovered. Some of the world's most succulent fish find their way in and out of this reserve, and many native tribes continue to live here.
Life, Untainted
Life continues to exist and thrive without human intervention. In fact, it could be said that the biggest attraction of the ANWR is the continuation of life cycles before the recent intervention of man. The wildlife continues to raise their young, hunt and forage, and evolve in peace.
This situation is particularly unique due to the climate of northern Alaska and the Arctic Circle- the extreme temperatures and high amounts of snow have kept humans and animals alike from setting up camp. However, with recent oil projects starting up in Alaska, the ANWR's role will become more important than ever as it strives to maintain the unspoiled solitude that the wildlife has enjoyed for thousands of years.
The results of this untainted lifestyle are easy to see: the fish are healthier and larger, the land animals graze in packs, and the hunters stalk without fear of reprisal. There is no pollution, no noise, and no intervention. Just nature doing what it was always intended to do.
See the Refuge
Close your eyes for a moment and picture the sun setting over the hills. A stream runs through the valley that you are standing in, and the few remaining rays of sunlight reflect off of the water, giving it a golden edge. A flock of Geese fly overhead, their call echoing unchallenged throughout the landscape. A few Moose stand at the base of the stream, drinking the golden water. You sense peace, and feel as if the world has all but disappeared, if only for a few fleeting moments.
You can open your eyes. Nowhere else in the world will you be able to see or experience something as tranquil and serene. Tourists are able to see certain areas of the ANWR and experience some of the magic themselves. But remember, life here is how it was meant to be, you may find that you won't want to leave.
The Arctic is home to many different species of birds, bears, fish, and other animals. Much of the Arctic is still unspoiled, and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) intends to keep it that way. This organization and reserve sees the value in unspoiled landscapes and thriving wildlife.
The ANWR reserve spans over nineteen million acres, and within its boundaries there are over 500 different species of recognizable wildlife, and many more that have yet to be discovered. Some of the world's most succulent fish find their way in and out of this reserve, and many native tribes continue to live here.
Life, Untainted
Life continues to exist and thrive without human intervention. In fact, it could be said that the biggest attraction of the ANWR is the continuation of life cycles before the recent intervention of man. The wildlife continues to raise their young, hunt and forage, and evolve in peace.
This situation is particularly unique due to the climate of northern Alaska and the Arctic Circle- the extreme temperatures and high amounts of snow have kept humans and animals alike from setting up camp. However, with recent oil projects starting up in Alaska, the ANWR's role will become more important than ever as it strives to maintain the unspoiled solitude that the wildlife has enjoyed for thousands of years.
The results of this untainted lifestyle are easy to see: the fish are healthier and larger, the land animals graze in packs, and the hunters stalk without fear of reprisal. There is no pollution, no noise, and no intervention. Just nature doing what it was always intended to do.
See the Refuge
Close your eyes for a moment and picture the sun setting over the hills. A stream runs through the valley that you are standing in, and the few remaining rays of sunlight reflect off of the water, giving it a golden edge. A flock of Geese fly overhead, their call echoing unchallenged throughout the landscape. A few Moose stand at the base of the stream, drinking the golden water. You sense peace, and feel as if the world has all but disappeared, if only for a few fleeting moments.
You can open your eyes. Nowhere else in the world will you be able to see or experience something as tranquil and serene. Tourists are able to see certain areas of the ANWR and experience some of the magic themselves. But remember, life here is how it was meant to be, you may find that you won't want to leave.
See also related blog:
Monday, March 24, 2008
Online payday loans
A payday loan is a short term loan pre-cut using paycheck, also known as payday advance. Using a control or savings account, the money from your payday loan online cash advance is paid directly you check or savings account. You then set the conditions to repay your payday loan at the time to take the next paycheck. Having grown in popularity since the early 1990 as an instrument to combat NSF fees and late payment penalties, many people prefer this financing tool complements the temporary loss of income or a cover unforeseen expenses in relationship with other methods, such as using high rates of interest title loans or pawnbrokers.
Due to the fact that the paycheck acts as a guarantee against the loan does not have to deal with the hassle of credit checks or office investigations. Fast Cash Advance online payday loans vary in height, from $ 100 1000, which usually do not require a credit check, payday lending and other options are available to ensure that everyone can get a payday loan Online easily. So, if the bills pile up, but the paycheck is still a few days or weeks, a fast, secure payday loan can give you access to money needed to maintain the current economic base by offering an advance cash directly into your bank account. So if you are on a payday lending? Well, you can get a PowerPaydayLoan now. Once your application is approved loan amount will be credited to your account overnight. The good thing is that you have not started no credit check before approving the request.
Due to the fact that the paycheck acts as a guarantee against the loan does not have to deal with the hassle of credit checks or office investigations. Fast Cash Advance online payday loans vary in height, from $ 100 1000, which usually do not require a credit check, payday lending and other options are available to ensure that everyone can get a payday loan Online easily. So, if the bills pile up, but the paycheck is still a few days or weeks, a fast, secure payday loan can give you access to money needed to maintain the current economic base by offering an advance cash directly into your bank account. So if you are on a payday lending? Well, you can get a PowerPaydayLoan now. Once your application is approved loan amount will be credited to your account overnight. The good thing is that you have not started no credit check before approving the request.
Sunday, March 16, 2008
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Science, Healthy Lifestyles, Global Warming - Mandarins in Manhattan
Throughout the expansion of people around the earth the movements have generally spread east and west out of Africa, and most have stayed in the wide central middle climate zones between both poles where the science shows that healthy lifestyles are easier if you can grow crops all year. Thus in the west it was that as people migrated to the north from Egypt they found winter storms could happen in Athens or Rome. And thus developed the need for storage for the times when science says if the average temperature falls below 40 F crops will not grow.
And after the times of Alexander the Great, the creation of his majestic port at the mouth of the life giving Nile made possible increasing crops in ever fertile Egypt to soon become the bread basket for Athens and then Rome. And even before Athens back into the far reaches of time, people had been forced southward in Europe and all northern regions of earth, at both poles really. The cave drawings in southern France also show reindeer bones at layers when England was covered in ice.
We have moved north and south several times. And with our human help, it is rather speeding up this time, as the flowing water out of expanding holes in glaciers shows from Greenland and Canada to the Antarctic. Soon the always frozen seas of northern Canada will be open to traffic, the long sought northwest passage which actually is a huge short cut for trade between Europe and Asia. All win with lower costs and quickly delivery in this case. There is that issue about the sea rising, which may create Dutch type cities and the need to adapt to what ever is coming at us.
If New Orleans needs 10 feet high dikes, let us build them. In some areas less precious or historic, maybe we need to move to high ground also. But what is coming is the northward ability of crops, from Changsha Mandarin Oranges and hardy banana trees up in west coast Canada, to grizzly bears mating with polar bears as they reach the Arctic Ocean, where small trees are starting to poke up from the permafrost. And we now have other burning bushes to put out while California crops and vineyard dry out as we find the Sonoran desert moving northward, burning bushes by bush.
Meanwhile Manhattan will sonn grow Mandarin oranges as now in the frost zones of Manchuria. And as grizzly bears have now reached the Arctic Ocean, we in Canada now have a new worry: what do you call a baby bear, still white but with a black mouth, who had a Grizzly for a daddy, and a Polar kind of mom? Change would be good.
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And after the times of Alexander the Great, the creation of his majestic port at the mouth of the life giving Nile made possible increasing crops in ever fertile Egypt to soon become the bread basket for Athens and then Rome. And even before Athens back into the far reaches of time, people had been forced southward in Europe and all northern regions of earth, at both poles really. The cave drawings in southern France also show reindeer bones at layers when England was covered in ice.
We have moved north and south several times. And with our human help, it is rather speeding up this time, as the flowing water out of expanding holes in glaciers shows from Greenland and Canada to the Antarctic. Soon the always frozen seas of northern Canada will be open to traffic, the long sought northwest passage which actually is a huge short cut for trade between Europe and Asia. All win with lower costs and quickly delivery in this case. There is that issue about the sea rising, which may create Dutch type cities and the need to adapt to what ever is coming at us.
If New Orleans needs 10 feet high dikes, let us build them. In some areas less precious or historic, maybe we need to move to high ground also. But what is coming is the northward ability of crops, from Changsha Mandarin Oranges and hardy banana trees up in west coast Canada, to grizzly bears mating with polar bears as they reach the Arctic Ocean, where small trees are starting to poke up from the permafrost. And we now have other burning bushes to put out while California crops and vineyard dry out as we find the Sonoran desert moving northward, burning bushes by bush.
Meanwhile Manhattan will sonn grow Mandarin oranges as now in the frost zones of Manchuria. And as grizzly bears have now reached the Arctic Ocean, we in Canada now have a new worry: what do you call a baby bear, still white but with a black mouth, who had a Grizzly for a daddy, and a Polar kind of mom? Change would be good.
Friday, March 14, 2008
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Monday, March 3, 2008
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Sunday, March 2, 2008
THE HISTORY OF COMPUTER
The history of computer began long before the modern discipline of computer science that emerged in the twentieth century. The progression, from mechanical inventions and mathematical theories towards the modern concepts and machines, formed a major academic field and the basis of a massive world-wide industry.
Main article: History of computing
The earliest known tool for use in computation was the abacus, and it was thought to have been invented in Babylon circa 2400 BCE. Its original style of usage was by lines drawn in sand with pebbles. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today.
In 1115 BCE, the South Pointing Chariot was invented in ancient China. It was the first known geared mechanism to use a differential gear, which was later used in analog computers. The Chinese also invented a more sophisticated abacus from around the 2nd century BCE known as the Chinese abacus).
In the 5th century BCE in ancient India, the grammarian Pāṇini formulated the grammar of Sanskrit in 3959 rules known as the Ashtadhyayi which was highly systematized and technical. Panini used metarules, transformations and recursions with such sophistication that his grammar had the computing power equivalent to a Turing machine.
Between 200 BCE and 400 CE, Jaina mathematicians in India invented the logarithm. From the 13th century, logarithmic tables were produced by Muslim mathematicians.
When John Napier discovered logarithms for computational purposes in the early 16th century, there followed a period of considerable progress by inventors and scientists in making calculating tools.
None of the early computational devices were really computers in the modern sense, and it took considerable advancement in mathematics and theory before the first modern computers could be designed.
Algorithms
In the 7th century, Indian mathematician Brahmagupta gave the first explanation of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system and the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit.
Approximately around the year 825, Persian mathematician Al-Khwarizmi wrote a book, On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals, that was principally responsible for the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the Middle East and then Europe. Around the 12th century, there was translation of this book written into Latin: Algoritmi de numero Indorum. These books presented newer concepts to perform a series of steps in order to accomplish a task such as the systematic application of arithmetic to algebra. By derivation from his name, we have the term algorithm.
Binary logic
Around the 3rd century BC, Indian mathematician Pingala invented the binary numeral system. In this system, still used today to process all modern computers, a sequence of ones and zeros can represent any number.
In 1703, Gottfried Leibniz developed logic in a formal, mathematical sense with his writings on the binary numeral system. In his system, the ones and zeros also represent true and false values or on and off states. But it took more than a century before George Boole published his Boolean algebra in 1854 with a complete system that allowed computational processes to be mathematically modeled.
By this time, the first mechanical devices driven by a binary pattern had been invented. The industrial revolution had driven forward the mechanization of many tasks, and this included weaving. Punch cards controlled Joseph Marie Jacquard's loom in 1801, where a hole punched in the card indicated a binary one and an unpunched spot indicated a binary zero. Jacquard's loom was far from being a computer, but it did illustrate that machines could be driven by binary systems. is a system
The Analytical Engine
It wasn't until Charles Babbage, considered the "father of computing," that the modern computer began to take shape with his work on the Analytical Engine. The device, though never successfully built, had all of the functionality in its design of a modern computer. He first described it in 1837 -- more than 100 years before any similar device was successfully constructed. The difference between Babbage's Engine and preceding devices is simple - he designed his to be programmed.
During their collaboration, mathematician Ada Lovelace published the first ever computer programs in a comprehensive set of notes on the analytical engine. Because of this, Lovelace is popularly considered the first computer programmer, but some scholars contend that the programs published under her name were originally created by Babbage.
Birth of computer science
Before the 1920s, computers were human clerks that performed computations. They were usually under the lead of a physicist. Many thousands of computers were employed in commerce, government, and research establishments. Most of these computers were women, and they were known to have a degree in calculus. Some performed astronomical calculations for calendars.
After the 1920s, the expression computing machine referred to any machine that performed the work of a human computer, especially those in accordance with effective methods of the Church-Turing thesis. The thesis states that a mathematical method is effective if it could be set out as a list of instructions able to be followed by a human clerk with paper and pencil, for as long as necessary, and without ingenuity or insight.
Machines that computed with continuous values became known as the analog kind. They used machinery that represented continuous numeric quantities, like the angle of a shaft rotation or difference in electrical potential.
Digital machinery, in contrast to analog, were able to render a state of a numeric value and store each individual digit. Digital machinery used difference engines or relays before the invention of faster memory devices.
The phrase computing machine gradually gave away, after the late 1940s, to just computer as the onset of electronic digital machinery became common. These computers were able to perform the calculations that were performed by the previous human clerks.
Since the values stored by digital machines were not bound to physical properties like analog devices, a logical computer, based on digital equipment, was able to do anything that could be described "purely mechanical." Alan Turing, known as the Father of Computer Science, invented such a logical computer known as the Turing Machine, which later evolved into the modern computer. These new computers were also able to perform non-numeric computations, like music.
From the time when computational processes were performed by human clerks, the study of computability began a science by being able to make evident which was not explicit into ordinary sense more immediate.
The theoretical groundwork
The mathematical foundations of modern computer science began to be laid by Kurt Gödel with his incompleteness theorem (1931). In this theorem, he showed that there were limits to what could be proved and disproved within a formal system. This led to work by Gödel and others to define and describe these formal systems, including concepts such as mu-recursive functions and lambda-definable functions.
1936 was a key year for computer science. Alan Turing and Alonzo Church independently, and also together, introduced the formalization of an algorithm, with limits on what can be computed, and a "purely mechanical" model for computing.
These topics are covered by what is now called the Church–Turing thesis, a hypothesis about the nature of mechanical calculation devices, such as electronic computers. The thesis claims that any calculation that is possible can be performed by an algorithm running on a computer, provided that sufficient time and storage space are available.
Turing also included with the thesis a description of the Turing machine. A Turing machine has an infinitely long tape and a read/write head that can move along the tape, changing the values along the way. Clearly such a machine could never be built, but nonetheless, the model can simulate the computation of any algorithm which can be performed on a modern computer.
Turing is so important to computer science that his name is also featured on the Turing Award and the Turing test. He contributed greatly to British code-breaking successes in the Second World War, and continued to design computers and software through the 1940s, but committed suicide in 1954.
At a symposium on large-scale digital machinery in Cambridge, Turing said, "We are trying to build a machine to do all kinds of different things simply by programming rather than by the addition of extra apparatus".
In 1948, the first practical computer that could run stored programs, based on the Turing machine model, had been built - the Manchester Baby.
In 1950, Britain's National Physical Laboratory completed Pilot ACE, a small scale programmable computer, based on Turing's philosophy.
Shannon and information theory
Up to and during the 1930s, electrical engineers were able to build electronic circuits to solve mathematical and logic problems, but most did so in an ad hoc manner, lacking any theoretical rigor. This changed with Claude E. Shannon's publication of his 1937 master's thesis, A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits. While taking an undergraduate philosophy class, Shannon had been exposed to Boole's work, and recognized that it could be used to arrange electromechanical relays (then used in telephone routing switches) to solve logic problems. This concept, of utilizing the properties of electrical switches to do logic, is the basic concept that underlies all electronic digital computers, and his thesis became the foundation of practical digital circuit design when it became widely known among the electrical engineering community during and after World War II.
Shannon went on to found the field of information theory with his 1948 paper entitled A Mathematical Theory of Communication, which applied probability theory to the problem of how to best encode the information a sender wants to transmit. This work is one of the theoretical foundations for many areas of study, including data compression and cryptography.
Main article: Software bug
The first actual computer bug was a moth. It was stuck in between the relays on the Harvard Mark II. While the invention of the term 'bug' is often but erroneously attributed to Grace Hopper, a rear admiral in the U.S. Navy, who supposedly logged the "bug" on September 9, 1945, most other accounts conflict at least with these details. According to these accounts, the actual date was September 9, 1947 when operators filed this 'incident' — along with the insect and the notation "First actual case of bug being found" (see software bug for details).
JATROPA (Tuba-Tuba) /(Tagumbao) Farming
JATROPA (Jatropha curcas L.) Locally known as tuba-tuba is one of the most promising sources of bio-fuel today. About 30 percent of the tuba-tuba nut is composed of oil. This oil can be easily processed into fuel that can replace or mixed with petroleum based diesel to save on imported oil and most importantly increase local employment and help the economy to grow. The tuba-tuba has been planted for quite sometime but it was mainly as fencing. It is also known in the Tagalog region as “tubing bakod” and”sambo” while the Ilocanos call it “tawa-tawa” while it is called “tagumbao” in Nueva Ecija and Pangasinan. In the Cagayan Valley, it is known as “kalunay” and “kasla” among the Ilonggos. In the Lanao region, it is known as “tangantangan”.
Jatropha is a drought-resistant perennial shrub with an economic life of up to 35 years and can even extend up to 50 years. The shrub has a smooth, gray bark which exudes a whitish color, watery latex when cut. The size of the leaves ranges from 6-15 cm in length and width. It sheds leaves in the dry season and rejuvenates during the rainy season.
The flowers of jatropha are formed terminally with the female flowers usually slightly larger. It has two flowering peaks which occur during the wet season. It is pollinated by insects and each inflorescence yields fruits. Jatropha starts producing seeds within 14 months from planting but reaches its maximum productivity level after 4 to 5 years.
The seed matures when the capsules changes from green to yellow about 2-3 months after flowering.
Seeds
Jatropha grows fast with little or no maintenance and can reach a height of 3 to 8 meters. It can be planted or propagated through seed or cuttings. Seeds intended for seeding production must be soaked in water for eight hours before sowing. This should be done to soften the seed coat to facilitate faster germination. Slow seeds in soil mixed with sand. The first shoot is expected after six days. Water the plants everyday. Seedlings are ready for transplanting in the field after two months. Planting distance can be 3m x 2m depending on the soil fertility.
Stem cutting
Another method of propagating jatropha is through stem cutting. It is important to obtain cuttings from eight month-old mature plant. Use a sharp bolo to cut the stem about 30 cm long from the base of the stem. Matured cuttings was found to be the best source of planting materials that can easily produce seeds at least 6 months earlier than from seeds.
Tissue culture
Jatropha can also be propagated through tissue culture. This method is a laboratory –based which uses artifificial and sterilized propagation media. Tissues from various plants can be used in this procedure which allows asexual propagation of plants with desired characteristics. In order to obtain a higher rate of survival of planting materials, it is important to establish a nursery that is accessible to the plantation that has a source of water.
Cultivation
Jatropha grows on all types of soil (ordinary soil, sandy, gravely or rocky soil) and adapts easily to different climates. It can survive a long period of drought by shedding most of it leaves. It can stand up to two years without rainfall. The tree also has a short gestation period, it will bear a several fruits starting at about 8 months old and be fully fruit bearing between one to two years. It can be adapted to marginal soils with low nutrient content but the use of organic fertilizer would result to higher yield. It grows best when planted at the onset of the rainy season. The distance of planting for commercial production is 2m x 2m apart but for hedges, the recommended distance of planting is 1m x 1m. The trees can also be planted on coconut plantations – intercropping the tuba-tuba under the coconut trees provided that it receives sufficient sunlight.
The plants must be watered up to two weeks after transplanting to ensure its continued growth. In order to obtain higher yield and better quality seeds, fertilizer application is recommended. To prevent wilting, plants must be watered after applying fertilizer. For rainfed areas, fertilizer can be applied during rainy season. Apply fertilizer at a depth of 5-10cm and a distance of 15-20cm away from the plant. Organic fertilizer is highly recommended for jatropha production.
Harvesting and Processing
Seeds can usually be harvested one year after planting. It is best to harvest the fruits when these have turned yellow to dark brown. Approximately two to three months after flowering, seeds should be collected when the capsules have split open. Seeds should not be dried in direct sunlight because it will affect its germination. One kilogram of jatropha seeds consists of 600 to 1,600 pieces of seeds. The potential yield of jatropha per hectare is 6 tons to as high as 1o tons depending on the site, climate and management of the plants. Seeds are de-hulled by using wooden plank and then winnowed to separate the hulls from the seeds. Before storing, the seeds must be air dried to 5% - 7% moisture content and stored in air-tight containers. Seeds can be stored up to one year at room temperature. Seeds for replanting can be gathered when fruits are already yellow to dark brown. Dry, black seeds can be used for oil extraction.
Technology
Oil Production
The extraction process involves the use of machines to extract the vegetable oil from the seed. This produces Jatropha crude oil, with hull and press cake as by products. Laboratory results show that around 2.9 kg of seeds produces one liter of crude oil.
Refining of oil into biodiesel
On the other hand, the transesterification of crude oil is a process which uses chemicals like methanol and catalysts such as caustic soda. This produces Jatropha Methyl Ester (JME) as its main product and glycerine as its co-product. 10 liters of crude oil can produce 8.5 liters of JME.
The results of testing made on Philippine Forest’s JME show the great potential of Jatropha oil as a source of biodiesel. Laboratory tets showed that it passes the American (ASTM D6751) and European (EN 14214) standards for biodiesel. Moreover, analysis of Jatropha crude oil shows that it is comparable to bunker fuel.
Uses
Jatropha is a potential source of biodiesel for local production to replace a portion of the country’s dependence on imported oil. The extracted oil from jatropha can be used in diesel engines (in lover blends with diesel fuel). Blending of fuel can be done up to 20 percent (B20) without engine modification. Using jatropha as biodiesel reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
Jatropha can be grown on marginal and degraded land, thus, leaving prime agricultural lands for food crops, and at the same time restoring the fertility of these marginal lands. Aside from using the seed oil as biodiesel, the extracted oil can also be used in making soap. The leaves can be used for fumigating houses to expel bugs. The root extract can be used as yellow dye while the bark extract as blue dye. The seeds when pounded can be used for tanning while the roots, flowers and latex of the tuba-tuba plant are said to have medicinal properties.
With the ever increasing interest in biodiesel fuels, we may be one day get used to the idea that fuel for our vehicles was harvested from local plantations instead of using imported oil.
Economics
Initial investment for commercial plantation (2m x 2m) for one hectare ranges from Php31,009 to Php52,770. the return of investment ranges from 0.90 – 1.8 while payback period is between 2nd to 3rd year. Potential yield ranges from 6 tons to as high as 10 tons per hectare depending on the site, climate and tending operations.
Jatropha is a drought-resistant perennial shrub with an economic life of up to 35 years and can even extend up to 50 years. The shrub has a smooth, gray bark which exudes a whitish color, watery latex when cut. The size of the leaves ranges from 6-15 cm in length and width. It sheds leaves in the dry season and rejuvenates during the rainy season.
The flowers of jatropha are formed terminally with the female flowers usually slightly larger. It has two flowering peaks which occur during the wet season. It is pollinated by insects and each inflorescence yields fruits. Jatropha starts producing seeds within 14 months from planting but reaches its maximum productivity level after 4 to 5 years.
The seed matures when the capsules changes from green to yellow about 2-3 months after flowering.
Seeds
Jatropha grows fast with little or no maintenance and can reach a height of 3 to 8 meters. It can be planted or propagated through seed or cuttings. Seeds intended for seeding production must be soaked in water for eight hours before sowing. This should be done to soften the seed coat to facilitate faster germination. Slow seeds in soil mixed with sand. The first shoot is expected after six days. Water the plants everyday. Seedlings are ready for transplanting in the field after two months. Planting distance can be 3m x 2m depending on the soil fertility.
Stem cutting
Another method of propagating jatropha is through stem cutting. It is important to obtain cuttings from eight month-old mature plant. Use a sharp bolo to cut the stem about 30 cm long from the base of the stem. Matured cuttings was found to be the best source of planting materials that can easily produce seeds at least 6 months earlier than from seeds.
Tissue culture
Jatropha can also be propagated through tissue culture. This method is a laboratory –based which uses artifificial and sterilized propagation media. Tissues from various plants can be used in this procedure which allows asexual propagation of plants with desired characteristics. In order to obtain a higher rate of survival of planting materials, it is important to establish a nursery that is accessible to the plantation that has a source of water.
Cultivation
Jatropha grows on all types of soil (ordinary soil, sandy, gravely or rocky soil) and adapts easily to different climates. It can survive a long period of drought by shedding most of it leaves. It can stand up to two years without rainfall. The tree also has a short gestation period, it will bear a several fruits starting at about 8 months old and be fully fruit bearing between one to two years. It can be adapted to marginal soils with low nutrient content but the use of organic fertilizer would result to higher yield. It grows best when planted at the onset of the rainy season. The distance of planting for commercial production is 2m x 2m apart but for hedges, the recommended distance of planting is 1m x 1m. The trees can also be planted on coconut plantations – intercropping the tuba-tuba under the coconut trees provided that it receives sufficient sunlight.
The plants must be watered up to two weeks after transplanting to ensure its continued growth. In order to obtain higher yield and better quality seeds, fertilizer application is recommended. To prevent wilting, plants must be watered after applying fertilizer. For rainfed areas, fertilizer can be applied during rainy season. Apply fertilizer at a depth of 5-10cm and a distance of 15-20cm away from the plant. Organic fertilizer is highly recommended for jatropha production.
Harvesting and Processing
Seeds can usually be harvested one year after planting. It is best to harvest the fruits when these have turned yellow to dark brown. Approximately two to three months after flowering, seeds should be collected when the capsules have split open. Seeds should not be dried in direct sunlight because it will affect its germination. One kilogram of jatropha seeds consists of 600 to 1,600 pieces of seeds. The potential yield of jatropha per hectare is 6 tons to as high as 1o tons depending on the site, climate and management of the plants. Seeds are de-hulled by using wooden plank and then winnowed to separate the hulls from the seeds. Before storing, the seeds must be air dried to 5% - 7% moisture content and stored in air-tight containers. Seeds can be stored up to one year at room temperature. Seeds for replanting can be gathered when fruits are already yellow to dark brown. Dry, black seeds can be used for oil extraction.
Technology
Oil Production
The extraction process involves the use of machines to extract the vegetable oil from the seed. This produces Jatropha crude oil, with hull and press cake as by products. Laboratory results show that around 2.9 kg of seeds produces one liter of crude oil.
Refining of oil into biodiesel
On the other hand, the transesterification of crude oil is a process which uses chemicals like methanol and catalysts such as caustic soda. This produces Jatropha Methyl Ester (JME) as its main product and glycerine as its co-product. 10 liters of crude oil can produce 8.5 liters of JME.
The results of testing made on Philippine Forest’s JME show the great potential of Jatropha oil as a source of biodiesel. Laboratory tets showed that it passes the American (ASTM D6751) and European (EN 14214) standards for biodiesel. Moreover, analysis of Jatropha crude oil shows that it is comparable to bunker fuel.
Uses
Jatropha is a potential source of biodiesel for local production to replace a portion of the country’s dependence on imported oil. The extracted oil from jatropha can be used in diesel engines (in lover blends with diesel fuel). Blending of fuel can be done up to 20 percent (B20) without engine modification. Using jatropha as biodiesel reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
Jatropha can be grown on marginal and degraded land, thus, leaving prime agricultural lands for food crops, and at the same time restoring the fertility of these marginal lands. Aside from using the seed oil as biodiesel, the extracted oil can also be used in making soap. The leaves can be used for fumigating houses to expel bugs. The root extract can be used as yellow dye while the bark extract as blue dye. The seeds when pounded can be used for tanning while the roots, flowers and latex of the tuba-tuba plant are said to have medicinal properties.
With the ever increasing interest in biodiesel fuels, we may be one day get used to the idea that fuel for our vehicles was harvested from local plantations instead of using imported oil.
Economics
Initial investment for commercial plantation (2m x 2m) for one hectare ranges from Php31,009 to Php52,770. the return of investment ranges from 0.90 – 1.8 while payback period is between 2nd to 3rd year. Potential yield ranges from 6 tons to as high as 10 tons per hectare depending on the site, climate and tending operations.
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